Important Vocabularies for IELTS and TOEFL Test

Important Vocabularies for IELTS and TOEFL Test Chapter 2

Mainstay (n.) - The most important element of something.

Dominated (v.) - Controlled or influenced something or someone.

Cultivators (n.) - People who cultivate land for crops.

Landholdings (n.) - Pieces of land that are owned or controlled by someone.

Self-consumption (n.) - The act of using something oneself rather than selling it.

Commercialized (v.) - Became oriented towards making a profit.

Produce (n.) - Products, especially agricultural products.

Domestic consumers (n.) - Consumers within a particular country.

International consumers (n.) - Consumers in other countries.

Living standards (n.) - The level of wealth, comfort, and material goods that people enjoy.

Buying power (n.) - The amount of goods and services that money can buy.

Urbanization (n.) - The process of people moving from rural areas to cities.

Mounting (adj.) - Increasing steadily or rapidly.

Personal consumption (n.) - The use of goods and services by individuals.

Railroad districts (n.) - Areas served by a railroad.

Coastal cities (n.) - Cities located on the coast.

Market gardeners (n.) - People who grow vegetables and fruits to sell.

Accessible markets (n.) - Markets that are easy to reach.

Output (n.) - The amount of something that is produced.

Taxes in kind (n.) - Taxes paid in goods or services instead of money.

Per capita (adj.) - For each person.

Subsistence farming (n.) - Farming for the purpose of feeding oneself and one's family, with little or no surplus for sale.

State policy (n.) - The official course of action taken by a government.

Reactive response (n.) - An action taken in response to something else.

Consumer goods (n.) - Goods that are bought and used by ordinary people.

Tastes (n.) - Preferences for particular things.

Availability (n.) - The state of being able to be used or obtained.

Tulip Period (n.) - A period of cultural and artistic flourishing in the Ottoman Empire from 1718 to 1730.

Urban revival (n.) - A period of renewed growth and development in a city.

Leisure time (n.) - Free time that is not spent working or doing other necessary tasks.

Cash incomes (n.) - Income received in the form of money.

Vasta (adj.) - Very large in size or amount.

Uncultivated (adj.) - Not used for growing crops.

Land under cultivation (n.) - Land that is being used to grow crops.

Sharecropping (n.) - A system of farming in which a farmer rents land from a landowner and pays rent as a share of the crop produced.

Pastureland (n.) - Land used for grazing animals.

Moldavia and Wallachia (n.) - Two historical regions that are now part of Romania.

Commercial agriculture (n.) - The production of crops for sale rather than for subsistence use.

Accessible by water (adj.) - Easy to reach by water transportation.

Danube River basin (n.) - The area drained by the Danube River.

Expansion (n.) - The act or process of increasing the size or amount of something.

Interior regions (n.) - Regions located inland, away from the coast.

Productivity (n.) - The amount of output produced per unit of input.

Comets (n.) - Icy celestial objects that orbit the Sun and develop tails when they get close.

Solar system (n.) - The Sun and all the objects that orbit around it.

Frozen gases (n.) - Gases that are in a solid state due to very low temperatures.

Water vapor (n.) - The gaseous state of water.

Ammonia (n.) - A colorless gas with a strong smell, used in many industrial processes.

Methane (n.) - A colorless, odorless gas, the main component of natural gas.

Carbon dioxide (n.) - A colorless, odorless gas that is a greenhouse gas.

Carbon monoxide (n.) - A colorless, odorless gas that is poisonous.

Elongated orbits (n.) - Oval-shaped paths that are much longer than they are wide.

Pluto (n.) - A dwarf planet located in the Kuiper Belt.

Long-period comets (n.) - Comets that take hundreds of thousands of years to orbit the Sun.

Short-period comets (n.) - Comets that orbit the Sun in less than 200 years.

Halley’s Comet (n.) - A famous short-period comet that orbits the Sun every 76 years.

Inner solar system (n.) - The region of the solar system closer to the Sun.

Coma (n.) - The glowing head of a comet, made of gas and dust.

Nucleus (n.) - The solid, icy center of a comet.

Tail (n.) - A long stream of gas and dust that extends from a comet away from the Sun.

Radiation pressure (n.) - The force exerted by light or other electromagnetic radiation.

Solar wind (n.) - A stream of charged particles flowing outward from the Sun.

Ionized gases (n.) - Gases in which some atoms have lost or gained electrons.

Outer solar system (n.) - The region of the solar system farther from the Sun.

Kuiper belt (n.) - A region beyond Neptune containing many icy objects.

Circular orbits (n.) - Almost perfectly round paths.

Gravitational influence (n.) - The force of gravity exerted by one object on another.

Jovian planets (n.) - The giant planets in the solar system: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Elliptical orbits (n.) - Oval-shaped paths.

Spherical shell (n.) - A hollow sphere.

Oort cloud (n.) - A vast cloud of icy objects at the edge of the solar system.

Eccentric orbit (n.) - An oval-shaped path that is very elongated.

Distant passing star (n.) - A star that passes far away from our solar system.

Famous short-period comet (n.) - See #12 (Short-period comets).

Orbital period (n.) - The time it takes for an object to complete one orbit around another object.

Appearances (n.) - Times when a comet is visible from Earth.

Daylight hours (n.) - The daytime.

Approach (n.) - The act of coming closer to something.

Muralism (n.) - The art of painting large murals on walls.

Latin America (n.) - The countries of Central and South America.

Political and social issues (n.) - Problems related to government and society.

Social justice (n.) - The fair and equitable treatment of all people in a society.

Authentic forms of self-expression (n.) - Genuine ways of expressing oneself.

Cultural dependency (n.) - Reliance on the culture of another country.

International stage (n.) - The world stage.

Assimilated (v.) - Absorbed or integrated into a different culture.

Stereotypes (n.) - Oversimplified or exaggerated beliefs about a group of people.

Pre-Columbian (adj.) - Relating to the period before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas.

Representational (adj.) - Depicting or representing something.

Narrative (adj.) - Relating to a story or account.

Modernizing (adj.) - Bringing something up to date.

Commodity (n.) - A product that can be bought and sold.

Elite (n.) - A small group of people who hold power or wealth.

Empower (v.) - To give someone the power or authority to do something.

Pluralistic vision (n.) - A view that includes many different perspectives.

Heritage (n.) - A person's cultural or family background.

Pictographic traditions (n.) - Traditions of using pictures to represent words or ideas.

Barbarous (adj.) - Cruel or savage.

Tarnished (v.) - Damaged the reputation or image of something.

Internationalist (n.) - Someone who believes in international cooperation.

Ideologically (adv.) - In a way that relates to beliefs or principles.

Fragmented (adj.) - Broken up into small pieces.

Complex imagery (n.) - Images that are complicated or difficult to understand.

Patronize (v.) - To treat someone in a condescending or superior way.

Manifestations (n.) - Expressions or demonstrations of something.

Homegrown (adj.) - Produced or grown in one's own country.

Unmistakable (adj.) - Impossible to mistake or misunderstand.

Derived (v.) - Obtained or received from something else.

Recurred (v.) - Happened again.

Organisms (n.) - Living things.

Homeotherms (n.) - Warm-blooded animals that maintain a constant body temperature.

Ambient (adj.) - Surrounding.

Marine mammals (n.) - Warm-blooded animals that live in the ocean.

Subtidal (adj.) - Below the low-tide line.

Invertebrates (n.) - Animals without backbones.

Intermediate status (n.) - A state that falls in between two extremes.

Strong-swimming fishes (n.) - Fish that can swim quickly and for long distances.

Metabolic heat (n.) - Heat produced by the body's chemical processes.

Sustained activity (n.) - Activity that continues for a long time.

Intertidal animals (n.) - Animals that live in the area between the high-tide and low-tide marks.

Evaporation (n.) - The process by which a liquid changes into a gas.

Inanimate object (n.) - An object that is not alive.

Adaptations (n.) - Changes that help an organism survive in its environment.

Latitudes (n.) - The distance north or south of the equator.

Continuous (adj.) - Happening or continuing without interruption.

Heat loss (n.) - The transfer of heat from a warmer object to a cooler object.

Skin (n.) - The outer layer of an animal's body.

Periphery (n.) - The outer edge of something.

Radiate heat (v.) - To emit heat as electromagnetic waves.

Exhale (v.) - To breathe out.

Well-insulated (adj.) - Protected from heat loss.

Marine birds (n.) - Birds that live in the ocean.

Contour feathers (n.) - The outer feathers of a bird that give it its shape.

Down feathers (n.) - Soft, fluffy feathers that provide insulation.

Subcutaneous fat (n.) - Fat stored under the skin.

Preen (v.) - To clean and arrange feathers with their beak.

Metabolic rate (n.) - The rate at which an organism uses energy.

Unrelated area (n.) - A field that is not connected to the original topic.

Pneumonia (n.) - An infection that causes inflammation of the lungs.

Bacterium (n.) - A single-celled microorganism.

Vaccine (n.) - A substance that stimulates the body's immune system to protect against a specific disease.

Strain (n.) - A variety of a microorganism with specific characteristics.

Designated (v.) - Officially named or labelled.

Virulent (adj.) - Able to cause disease.

Heat-killed (adj.) - Bacteria that have been killed by heat.

Antibodies (n.) - Proteins produced by the immune system to fight off infection.

Inoculated (v.) - Introduced a vaccine or other substance into the body.

Astonishment (n.) - Great surprise.

Heritable change (n.) - A change that can be passed on to future generations.

Proteins (n.) - Complex molecules involved in many vital functions in living organisms.

Nucleic acids (n.) - Complex molecules that store and transmit genetic information, including DNA and RNA.

Carbohydrates (n.) - Sugars and starches that provide energy for living organisms.

Lipids (n.) - Fats, waxes, and oils that store energy and have other functions in living organisms.

Transforming activity (n.) - The ability to cause a change in bacteria.

Isolated (v.) - Separated or purified a substance from a mixture.

Terrestrial (adj.) - Of or relating to land.

Foraging (n.) - The act of searching for food or provisions.

Lagoons (n.) - Shallow bodies of water separated from a larger body of water by a narrow strip of land.

Marine (adj.) - Of or relating to the sea.

Culmination (n.) - The highest or most important point of development.

Subsisting (v.) - To survive or maintain oneself, especially by eating very little.

Waterfowl (n.) - Birds that live near or on water.

Year-round (adj.) - Throughout the entire year.

Social complexity (n.) - The presence of different social classes or groups within a society.

Cemeteries (n.) - Places where people are buried.

Burials (n.) - The act of burying a dead person.

Sedentary settlement (n.) - A permanent settlement where people live year-round.

Elaborate burials (n.) - Burials that involve complex rituals or special objects.

Affluent (adj.) - Having a great deal of money or possessions.

Hunter-gatherers (n.) - People who live by hunting wild animals and gathering plants for food.

Food quest (n.) - The search for food.

Exploiting (v.) - To make use of something, especially in a way that benefits one.