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Expedition: A journey undertaken for a particular purpose.
Principle: A fundamental truth or law.
Colonization: The establishment of a colony.
Commercial revolution: A significant change in trade and commerce.
Patterns: A regular and repeated way in which something happens.
Distant lands: Lands far away.
Settlements: Groups of people who live in a new place.
Heartland: The central or most important part of a country or region.
Military outposts: Small military bases.
Ethnic settlements: Groups of people from the same ethnic group living in a new place.
Contiguous territories: Lands that are next to each other.
Commercial consequence: A result of trade or commerce.
Urban center: A city or town.
Crafts: Skills or trades.
Privileged elite: A small group of people with special advantages.
Religious centers: Places of worship.
Royal or priestly leadership: Leaders of a kingdom or religious group.
Penetrated: Spread into or affected.
Privileges: Special rights or advantages.
Immemorial power and position: Power and position that has existed for a very long time.
Geographical accessibility: The ease of reaching a place.
Overtly: Openly or obviously.
Exerted a monopoly: Had exclusive control over something.
Prestige commodities: Goods that are highly valued or respected.
Redistribution: The distribution of something again in a different way.
Taxation: The act of imposing taxes.
Duties: Taxes on imported or exported goods.
Apparatus: A system or organization.
Metal coinage: Coins made from metal.
Legitimizations: The act of making something legitimate or acceptable.
Partially processed natural products: Natural products that have been changed or prepared but not yet finished.
Cotton textiles: Cloth made from cotton.
Naturally occurring materials: Materials that exist in nature without being made by humans.
Gems: Precious stones.
Enacted: Passed into law.
Navigation Acts: Laws regulating trade between Britain and its colonies.
Molasses: A thick liquid made from sugarcane.
Protective tariff: A tax on imported goods to protect domestic industries.
Imperial trade: Trade between a colonial empire and its colonies.
Defined as: Described or characterized as.
Merchants: People who buy and sell goods.
Merchant marine: A country's fleet of merchant ships.
Self-sufficient: Able to produce everything needed without relying on others.
Enumerated goods: Goods listed in a specific list.
Indigo: A plant used to make a blue dye.
Naval supplies: Supplies needed for ships.
Concessions: Things given up or granted.
Monopolies: Exclusive control over the production or sale of a product.
Customs officials: Government officials who collect taxes on imported and exported goods.
Incentives: Something that encourages people to do something.
Hemp: A plant used to make rope and other products.
Prohibited: Forbade or prevented.
Tailors: People who make or repair clothes.
Undersold: Sold at a lower price than competitors.
Ironworks: Places where iron is made.
Consumer goods: Goods bought by consumers for their own use.
Barred: Prevented or prohibited.
Sugarcane: A plant used to make sugar.
Rum: A type of alcoholic drink made from molasses.
Protective tariff: A tax on imported goods to protect domestic industries.
Self-sufficient: Able to produce everything needed without relying on others.
Monopolies: Exclusive control over the production or sale of a product.
Foremost: Most important or leading.
Centralized docks: Docks located in a central location.
Emerged: Became known or apparent.
Burdens: Problems or difficulties.
Natural monopoly: A monopoly that exists naturally due to market conditions.
Customs duties: Taxes on imported or exported goods.
Refunded: Paid back.
Economic diversification: The development of a variety of economic activities.
Silk: A cloth made from threads produced by silkworms.
Undersold: Sold at a lower price than competitors.
Ironworks: Places where iron is made.
Dishware: Dishes and other items used for eating.
Readily adaptable: Easily adjusted or changed to fit new conditions.
Spurring marvels of productivity: Greatly increasing the amount of goods produced.
Absorb: Consume or take in.
Trailblazers: Pioneers or those who create new ideas or methods.
Component: A part or element of something.
Emergence: The beginning or appearance of something new.
Graded: Sorted according to size or quality.
Hulled: Removed the outer husk from a grain.
Excess: An amount that is more than what is needed.
Guarantees: Promises that something will be of a certain quality.
Slogans: Short, catchy phrases used in advertising.
Overly precise: Excessively exact or detailed.
Improbable: Unlikely to happen.
Visual medium: A way of communication that uses images.
Democratized: Made available to everyone.
Industrial leaders: People who are successful and influential in industry.
Mass production: The manufacture of large quantities of identical items.
Consumer goods: Goods bought by consumers for their own use.
Trailblazers: Pioneers or those who create new ideas or methods (previously used).
Component: A part or element of something (previously used).
Marketing techniques: Strategies used to sell products or services.
Strategies: Plans of action designed to achieve a particular goal.
Unforgiving economic environment: A harsh and competitive economic situation.
Ruined fortunes: Great financial losses.
Bankrupted companies: Businesses that have gone out of business because they have no money left.
Subsistence wages: Wages that are only enough for people to survive on.
Expendable: Not needed or easily replaceable.
Pollution: The harmful contamination of the environment.
Relentless: Insisting on continuing without stopping.
Social benefits: Advantages or improvements that affect society as a whole.
Labor-saving products: Products that make work easier or faster.
Advances: Improvements or progress made in a particular field.
Post-Civil War: After the American Civil War (1861-1865).
Flour mills: Factories that grind wheat into flour.
Cake flours: Flours made specifically for baking cakes.
Breakfast cereals: Grain-based food that is typically eaten with milk for breakfast.
Fragile: Easily broken or damaged.
Bulk: Large size or amount.
Catchy: Likely to be remembered or noticed.
Inextricably interconnected: So closely linked or related that they cannot be separated.
Triggered: Caused or initiated.
Ecosystems: Communities of living organisms (plants, animals, and other microbes) together with the nonliving environment (water, air, rocks, mineral soil) interacting as a system.
Subtle: Difficult to notice or detect.
Vegetation: Plants growing in a particular area.
Sparked: Caused or ignited.
Chain: A series of connected things.
Effects: Results or consequences.
Latitudes: Imaginary lines on the Earth's surface, parallel to the equator, used to measure north-south position.
Paved the way: Made something easier to happen.
Spike: A sudden sharp increase.
Global temperatures: The average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and oceans.
Climate change: Long-term shifts in temperature and typical weather patterns in a place.
Ecosystem shifts: Changes in the composition and interactions of living organisms in an ecosystem.
Northern latitudes: The regions of the Earth farthest north of the equator.
Spruce bark beetles: Small insects that feed on the inner bark of spruce trees.
Pest: An animal or plant that damages or annoys humans or their crops.
Held in check: Controlled or limited.
Warm season: The time of year when temperatures are typically high.
Burrow: To dig a hole in the ground to live in.
Drought: A long period of time without rain.
Vulnerable: Susceptible to attack or damage.
Exploded: Increased rapidly and dramatically.
Epidemics: Widespread outbreaks of a disease that affects many individuals at the same time.
Swaths: Large areas or amounts of something.
Mycorrhizal fungi: Fungi that form a symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationship with the roots of plants.
Nutrients: Substances that are necessary for the growth and survival of living organisms.
Predators: Animals that hunt and kill other animals for food.
Disturbances: Events that disrupt the balance of an ecosystem.
Pest outbreaks: Rapid increases in the population of a pest.
Bounce back: Recover from a setback or damage.
Transition: Change from one state to another.
Dead zones: Areas in oceans or lakes with very low oxygen levels that cannot support most marine life.
Coral reefs: Underwater ecosystems made up of the hard skeletons of coral polyps.
Prediction: A statement made about what will happen in the future.
Magnitude: The measure of the strength of an earthquake.
Recurrence interval: The average time between earthquakes of a specific magnitude.
Long-term forecasting: Predicting earthquakes over a long period.
Precursor: A sign or warning that something is about to happen.
Seismic wave: A wave of energy that travels through the earth.
Electrical resistance: The ability of a material to oppose the flow of electric current.
Foreshock: A small earthquake that precedes a larger one.
Deformation: The changing of shape or form.
Land surface: The top layer of the earth.
Dilatancy model: A theory that explains changes in rocks before an earthquake.
Strain: The deformation of a material caused by stress.
Rupture: The breaking or tearing of a material.
Microcrack: A tiny crack in a material.
Mineral grain: A small particle of a mineral.
Grain boundary: The boundary between two mineral grains.
Groundwater: Water that is underground.
Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance.
Seismic-wave velocity: The speed at which a seismic wave travels.
Land-surface elevation: The height of the land surface above sea level.
Palmdale Bulge: A region of uplift along the San Andreas Fault.
Radon gas: A radioactive gas.
Chemical composition: The elements and compounds that make up a substance.
Public advisory: A warning or announcement issued to the public.
Refinement: The process of improving something.
Predictive capabilities: The ability to predict something.
Fertilizers: Substances added to soil to provide nutrients for plants.
Partially restore: To bring back part of something that has been lost.
Plant nutrients: Elements or compounds needed by plants for growth.
Erosion: The gradual wearing away of something by wind, water, or ice.
Crop harvesting: The process of gathering crops from the fields.
Leaching: The process by which soluble materials are dissolved and washed away from soil.
Organic fertilizer: Fertilizer derived from plant and animal materials.
Commercial inorganic fertilizer: Fertilizer produced from various minerals and manufactured for sale.
Animal manure: The waste matter of cattle, horses, poultry, and other farm animals.
Soil structure: The physical arrangement of particles in soil.
Beneficial soil bacteria and fungi: Microscopic organisms in soil that help decompose organic matter and improve soil health.
Effectiveness: The degree to which something is successful in producing a desired result.
Mixed animal-raising and crop-farming operations: Farms that raise animals and grow crops on the same land.
Feedlots: Large enclosures where animals are raised for fattening before slaughter.
Motorized farm machinery: Machines powered by engines that are used for farming.
Green manure: Fresh or growing green vegetation plowed into the soil to improve its fertility.
Humus: Degraded organic matter in soil that is dark-colored and rich in nutrients.
Compost: A sweet-smelling, dark-brown, humuslike material produced by the decomposition of organic matter.
Microorganisms: Microscopic organisms such as bacteria and fungi.
Aerobic bacteria: Bacteria that require oxygen to live.
Soil conditioner: A substance added to soil to improve its physical properties.
Aerates soil: Increases the amount of air in the soil.
Water retention: The ability of soil to hold water.
Nutrient leaching: The loss of nutrients from soil due to water movement.
Landfills: Sites where waste is dumped and buried.
Nitrogen-rich wastes: Organic materials that contain a high amount of nitrogen.
Carbon-rich plant wastes: Plant materials that contain a high amount of carbon.
Topsoil: The upper layer of soil.
Mycorrhizae fungi: Fungi that form a symbiotic relationship with plant roots.
Spores: Reproductive units of fungi and some other plants.
Deplete: To reduce the supply of something.
Crop rotation: The practice of planting different crops in the same area over a sequence of seasons.
Legumes: Plants that have seed pods containing one or more seeds.
Root nodules: Swellings on the roots of legumes that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Inorganic fertilizers: Fertilizers that are not derived from living organisms.
Ammonium ions: Positively charged ions containing nitrogen and hydrogen.
Nitrate ions: Positively charged ions containing nitrogen and oxygen.
Urea: A compound containing nitrogen that is used as a fertilizer.
Phosphate ions: Negatively charged ions containing phosphorus and oxygen.
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